French revolution Essay

Before the French Revolution, France was ruled and governed by the king, his Grand Council of ministers, and 13 courts called parliaments. King Louis XVI ruled by â€Å"divine right,† believing that he had been put on the throne by the grace of God. France then was one of the most powerful and wealthiest countries, and had a strong army, and even stronger cultural influence. (Plain, 5) Louis XVI and his wife Marie-Antoinette were shielded from the daily lives of the ordinary people in France. When Louis XVI inherited the throne in 1774, he also inherited many problems left behind by the previous king, King Louis XV. The country had been involved in the Seven Years War, also known as the French and Indian War, and was left with many debts of the war. France was divided into three groups, or estates with their own status and role to play in the country. The First Estate involved religious people in the country. The Second Estate involved all the nobles. These two estates had many privileges, and were the wealthiest group, but were only a small piece of the entire population. The Third Estate was everyone else in the country: the peasants, poor city dwellers, and the â€Å"middle class†. The Third Estate was the largest group, and had little to no power, even though it was the largest group. (Connolly, 8) In order to pay off national debts, Louis XVI increased taxes in the Third Estate, which impacted many of their lives. Because of the taxes, industry started to lag, and there were bread shortages in many places. People of the Third Estate relied on bread as their primary source of food, and when the bread ran out or the price increased, many people went hungry and riots broke out. (Plain, 19) Louis XVI shocked many people when he declared war against the British, even though they were already in massive debt because of the Seven Year’s War. King Louis XVI wanted to increase trade with America, and wanted revenge against the British for beating them in the Seven Year’s war. After the American Revolution, many Parisians were fascinated by Benjamin Franklin, the American Ambassador to France. Franklin told of the new American Republic, where representatives obeyed the will of the people. Talk about similar change spread through France. Louis XVI tried to make reforms by ending the corvà ©e in many provinces, and  outlawed the use of torture to gain information. He also granted more rights to Protestants and Jews living in France, and allowed more freedom of press. However, it was becoming harder and harder to govern with a stubborn parliament. In order to pay off debts, Louis tried to impose a tax on all landowners, not just the Third Estate. The parliament of Paris claimed that only a special assembly could approve a tax, an assembly that hasn’t been called in over 170 years, the Estates-General. (French Revolution ², 2) The Estates-General was an assembly where representatives of the three Estates could discuss what to do. Through May and into June 1789, the representatives argued about how many votes each Estate should have. The First and Second Estates bent the rules to their advantage, saying that each Estate should have only one vote, ensuring that they would win any conflict two to one. The Third Estate wanted a system of majority votes, since it would give it the most say. On Jun 17, the Third Estate broke away and declared itself the National Assembly, which was a direct offence to the people in power, including King Louis XVI. (Connolly,12) The National Assembly created a new law that gave only it the power to decide on taxes. Louis XVI banned the National Assembly from its meeting hall upon hearing this. However, on June 20, 1789, the National Assembly responded by moving to the Versailles tennis court across the street and swore the â€Å"Tennis Court Oath.† The representatives swore that they would not break apart until they had drafted a constitution for the people of France, guaranteeing rights to the French people. Many lower-ranking clergy and a number of nobles broke away from the First and Second Estates to join the National Assembly. Louis feared the combined strength of this group, and could see that people were rising up against him. (Connolly, 14) In order to show the French his power, Louis hired foreign soldiers to go to Versailles and Paris, and fired the popular minister Jacques Necker. However, with the public and numbers from the other two Estates on its side, the Third Estate stood strong. The king, not wanting an outright revolt, ordered the representatives from the First and Second Estates to join the National Assembly to show that he accepted the change in mood, which then changed its name to the National Constituent Assembly. The French people wanted complete victory for the representatives of the Third Estate. They were mad that the king brought foreign soldiers in to France and fired Jacques Necker. On July 12, 1789, full scale rioting began, with symbols of the king’s power the main targets. Crowds of people gathered at the Hà ´tel Invalides, the place where the army stored their guns, and demanded arms to fight with. They rioters were able to get about thirty-thousand muskets and several cannons. However, they obtained very little gunpowder and few bullets. Upon hearing that the gunpowder and ammunition have been moved to the fortified prison, the Bastille, for safekeeping, thousands of people went to swarm the Bastille. The Bastille was originally built as a fortress, with walls five feet thick, but was now used as a political prison, but held very few prisoners. The crowd attacked shortly after noon on July 14, and Bernard de Launey, the man in command at the Bastille, agreed to surrender to the crowd if he was not harmed. But, the crowds took Launey prisoner, and soon after cut off his head and mounted it on a pike. (Corzine, 44-46) When Louis XVI was informed of the fall of the Bastille, he exclaimed, â€Å"But, this is a revolt!† The official who informed him told him, â€Å"No, Sire. It is a revolution.† (Plain, 29) In August, the National Assembly wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, influenced by America’s Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen called for political power to be shared by every individual, for the right of religious freedom, and the rule of law. (Plain, 30) On October 5, 1789, thousands of women gathered at the city hall in Paris demanding bread. They disarmed guards and collected weapons and set out to Versailles to see the king. Along the way, a number of men and women joined them armed with scythes, heavy sticks, pikes, pitchforks, and knives. After the king was led back to Paris, he was literally held under house-arrest as a hostage. Louis XVI was convinced by his advisors and the queen to flee Paris and the entire royal family fled under the cover of the night. Many deputies feared that, with the king gone, foreign armies could invade France. The family’s flight was thwarted when they were recognized, a nd were led back to Paris as a prisoner in disgrace, and to many, a traitor. (Corzine, 63-65) By August 30, 1792, France was in a state of terror. The stronghold of Verdun was under siege by the Duke of Brunswick’s armies, which would give the enemy an open road to Paris if it fell. On September 2, news reached Paris that Verdun had fallen. On that September afternoon, terrible massacres occurred. Priests were dragged from their coaches and killed. Mobs stormed the Carmes prison and killed the priests imprisoned there. They were brought to a mock trial, and then executed. The killings lasted for five days, and over fourteen hundred people were killed. Nearly all the prisons in Paris were attacked and the prisoners murdered. (Corsine, 79-81) By 1792, members of the Jacobin club had taken control. The Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia, but were easily defeated. As the enemy armies marched towards Paris, the people panicked. On August 10, about twenty thousand French revolutionaries stormed the Tuileries palace, forcing the royal family to flee. By then, many of the Revolution’s former leaders had left the country. In September, the French army defeated the Prussians. The National Assembly then voted and renamed itself the National Convention, which adopted the slogan Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. The Convention then immediately abolished monarchy, and, on January 15, 1793, the Convention found the king guilty of â€Å"conspiring against liberty.† The king was escorted to the guillotine on January 20, 1793, and was quickly executed, becoming a symbol of the Revolution. (Connolly, 32) Following the death of Louis XVI, France was waging war with nearly every European power, including England, the Netherlands, Spain, Austria, and Prussia. There was also a small civil war in France, with the Royalists and the pro-Church people against the Revolutionaries. To help France through the war, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, led by Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobin Club of Paris. Robespierre stressed the need for a center of opinion and was enemies with many members of the Convention. The Committee of Public Safety tried to de-Christianize France, and created a completely new calendar. The Committee of Public Safety soon led the country into what is now known as the Reign of Terror. During the Reign of Terror, possible enemies of the Revolution were executed. Over sixteen thousand people from all classes were sent to the  guillotine, and flags now had the phrase Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, or Death! But, in July 1794, Rob espierre was sentenced to the guillotine, and his followers followed swiftly. (Plain, 35-38) The National Committee created a constitution that gave power to a five-member Directory, and two legislative bodies. The Directory had serious problems it had to face, such as supplying France with food and goods. Much of France’s population was starving. A little-known officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, supported the Directory and was able to help France in times of need. Several politicians overthrew the Directory on November 9, 1799, and created a new constitution which supposedly gave power to the Consulate, but actually gave all the real power to the First Consulate, which Napoleon Bonaparte was elected into. (Connolly, 44-45) Napoleon Bonaparte established the Bank of France, strengthened the school system, made government jobs, and established a code of justice known as the Napoleonic code. France also conquered many European countries, and by 1806, France controlled much of Western Europe. Napoleon soon became more and more powerful. He changed the constitution in order to give himself even more power, and declared himself Emperor of France soon after. The French believed that their lives were better under Napoleon, even though this was not the ideas of the Revolution. The French Revolution and the American Revolution were similar and different in many ways. The American’s wanted to break away from Great Britain, while France just wanted to get rid of the monarchy. During periods in the French Revolution, over seventeen thousand people were sent to the guillotine to be beheaded. During the war, America had France and Spain on its side and was against only Great Britain. France, however, was on its own, and had to fight against five countries. The French sent the king and queen of France to the Guillotine, but the Americans did not harm physically harm the royal family in any way. After the war, America had two forms of government. One was the Articles of Confederation, which gave too much power to the states, and another one was the Constitution of the United States. The French had four forms of government. The first was the National Assembly, the second  was the Committee of Public Safety, the third was the Directory, and the fourth was t he Consulate. For the French, their lives were better after the Revolution and once Napoleon was the First Consulate. The French Revolution was truly a revolution. The French Revolution was a real revolution because there are political changes, social changes, and economical changes. After the war, the French have overthrown the monarchy, and replaced it with the Directory. However, the Directory then fails, and is replaced with the Consulate. The people’s lives improved after the Revolution. The school system was better, and there were more jobs for people who could qualify. Napoleon established the Bank of France and improved the economy. Napoleon had improved the areas of education, justice, and business after the war, making the French Revolution a real revolution.

Comparisons of The Parthenon in Athens and the Pantheon in Rome Essay

The Parthenon and the Pantheon are temples built by ancient peoples are alike in so many ways but dissimilar in others.  Ã‚   Both were built to honor the Gods of their builders. The Parthenon built by the Greeks in Athens and the Pantheon in Rome built by the Romans.   On first looking at the buildings, the Parthenon is rectangular and the Pantheon primarily circular.  Ã‚   The Parthenon is built of white marble blocks; the Pantheon is built of concrete and was only faced in marble.   Concrete was a Roman invention and came after the Greek civilization.   Both structures were built to honor Gods.   The Greek structure was built to honor Athena, patron of Athens, Athena Parthenos; the Roman structure was built to honor all the Gods in their pantheon of deities.   Both structures were lighted by only natural light of the sun.   The Parthenon was illuminated only by light coming in through the open doors at the front of the temple.   The Pantheon was lighted by illumination coming in through a circular opening in the ceiling called the oculus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Parthenon in Athens was built according to the Doric order.   The Pantheon was built to the Corinthian order.   The three orders being Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.   Doric is the most simple or the types and Corinthian the most ornate. It is said that one can tell plain to fancy by the syllables.   Doric having one syllable, Ionic two and Corinthian three. Roman architecture coming after the Greek, it is generally acknowledged that the Roman architecture was derived from the Greek as were most of the Roman Gods, but they refined and added to both to get them Roman.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As for the architectural elements of the buildings, the Parthenon is basically a rectangle with slab on column architecture.   The Pantheon, a Greek word meaning â€Å"all the Gods†, by the way, is a product of Roman advanced architecture with the arch (a Roman invention) made into a dome (essentially an arch completely turned round on its central axis).   The front is a barrel vault (an arch, repeated endlessly on the central axis), attached to the dome.   Both structures have columns, but on both structures they are plain.   The Doric column is a round plain shaft, but on the Pantheon they are plain by choice.   The ordinary Corinthian column most often being fluted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another distinctive feature of the Pantheon is the dome.   An invention of the much later Romans is heavier at the base.   The dome is made of cement wider and heavier at the base with progressive thinness graduating toward the top.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both structures have had multiple uses since its completion.   Both have been reported being built for worship.   That factor has been debated for centuries.   The Parthenon could have been a treasury.  Ã‚   With each succeeding conquering entity, the use of the building changed.   As with the Parthenon, the Pantheon uses have changed.   Most notably, from pagan temple to Catholic church.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although both buildings are from the Classical period, both buildings survived into the 20th century.   The Pantheon being built of concrete and so fireproof, survived in better condition.   Both structures in their time were used as marble quarries for the conquering entity of the time.   Sculpture was taken from both also.  Ã‚   Enough remains of the structures with descriptions of each through all their existence, to give a picture of them the moment completion was finished.   Enough remains of each, to give a picture of how magnificent they looked in their time, to the people that conceived and built them. References: Sullivan, MA. Images of The Pantheon. March 21, 2007 Platner, SB and Ashby, T.   A  Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London: Oxford University Press, 1929.   March 21, 2007 < http://penelope.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  uchicago.edu /Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Pantheon.html> The British Museum. The Parthenon. March 22, 2007 The Parthenon.   March 22, 2007 The Parthenon. March 22, 2007 The Parthenon. March 22, 2007   

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Rhetorical Analysis - Essay Example Swift launches attack on the irresponsibility of the Ireland‘s lawmakers, the presence of the well-being in the society, dictatorship of the Englishmen and the desperation in which he sees the Irish people living in. He also puts across the Irish peoples reluctance and inability to stand on themselves. The work shows that the state, English and the Irish people are responsible for the misery state of the country. Political failure was all over the nation during the Swift time hence leading to several works written to criticize the political leadership. Their objectives were to pressurize them to provide solutions to economic problems, poverty and misuse of the poors children for the gain of the rich. The author protests bitterly on the inability of political leadership and attacks the introduction of several reformers towards economic changes. In conclusion, the main challenge to Swifts work is to get the public attention whose indifference was well focused. He puts his point negatively, to bring out the themes of morality, political incapacity and poverty which should be

Was Hitler's decision to attack the Soviet Union his greatest military Essay

Was Hitler's decision to attack the Soviet Union his greatest military failure - Essay Example Thus Operation Barbarossa would be the catalyst that resulted in the collapse of the Third Reich.6 Based on these assessments it is therefore argued that Hitler’s attack on the Soviet Union was its greatest military failure. This paper intends to illustrate this hypothesis by first evaluating Hitler’s foreign policy and secondly Operation Barbarossa. Hitler’s foreign policy will be evaluated first as a means of tying it to the strategies, planning and execution of Operation Barbarossa. Thirdly, this paper will conduct an analysis of Hitler’s attack on the Soviet Union with the objective of determining how Hitler’s attack on the Soviet Union ties in with his strategies toward the Allied powers during the Second World War. The third part of this paper will analyse what aspects of Operation Barbarossa contributed to its greatest failure. ... Even so, Weinberg informs that Hitler: Had a clearly formulated set of ideas on major issues of foreign policy, and these ideas were intimately interwoven with his concepts of domestic affairs.8 These clear ideas were founded on the doctrine of race and were predicated on the concept that man’s history is more specifically understood by reference to race. More specifically, man’s history is tied to the â€Å"racial components of different societies†.9 Prior to taking office, Hitler’s doctrine of race underpinnings and its characterization of his foreign policies were obvious in his speeches and writings. For Hitler, Germany had not lost the First World War. Instead, Germany had been backstabbed by Jews those who supported Jews. Jews and their supporters not only had tremendous influence in Germany but also garnered strength from foreign powers whose victory during the First World War had facilitated the backstabbing.10 It therefore followed that any effect ive foreign policy was required to facilitate domestic reconfiguration. To this end, according to Weinberg, â€Å"a nationally conscious group must assume power† and must â€Å"ruthlessly displace whatever steps toward democratic government† that had already occurred in Germany and â€Å"rearm to provide the tools of an aggressive foreign policy†.11 What this meant for Hitler was the formulation of a policy that would require a direct confrontation with France, Germany’s perpetual enemy. This policy might also require a coalition with Italy who equally objected to France acquiring European hegemony. Other strategies included annexing Austria and other yet to be identified territories under a â€Å"Greater Germany†.12 The

Controversy Analysis, fracking, air pollution, gasland, Essay

Controversy Analysis, fracking, air pollution, gasland, - Essay Example Moreover, due to the harm and damage to the environment that fracking implies, it will be the recommendation of this author that fracking should ultimately be suspended until a means of resource extraction that is not so horrifically damaging to the environment is found. Fracking itself is a process whereby a fluid is injected below the surface layer of rock and sediment to pressurize underlying regions of rocks to create fissures within these layers so that the trapped reserves of petroleum or natural gas may find their way into pockets and thereby be extracted via conventional means (Rijke 14). As was discussed in Gasland, due to the fact that drilling a new well in order to tap pockets of resources is inefficient and harmful to the environment, many resource extraction experts have turned to fracking as a quick way to help consolidate a regions gas/petroleum resources and make these amenable to fast and rather painless extraction process. The process itself does however have its u nique drawbacks (Clean Air and Natural Gas 1). These unique drawbacks will of course be related in further detail the proceeding sections of this analysis. One of the main drawbacks to fracking, that was referenced in Gasland is of course the environmental effects that fracking entails. Although there is a high level of disagreement on the actual environmental damage that fracking causes, it can be understood that regardless of one’s particular view of the situation fracking has the potential to unleash any one of a host of negative environmental externalities (Adgate 81) Some of these include: improper disposal of waste water, overall integrity of pipeline system and risk of blowouts due to over pressure, affects of having fluid water pervade multiple layers of subsurface rock and sediment and thereby diffuse through these contaminating hitherto untouched samples with key elements and contaminants from the other subsurface sedimentary layers, and the long-term effects to hea lth and safety of the drinking water supply as a result of the process itself (Weinhold 278). Because this process itself is extraordinarily damaging to the local environment, a number of opponents, this author included, have raised their voice with regards to seeking to suspend the process indefinitely (The Case for a Ban on Fracking 1). This understanding is not a matter of a convenient level of agreement with the documentary film Gasland; rather it is understood in this particular manner due to the host of negative implications that it entails for the environment as well as the health of the people affected by it. Due to the issues that have been listed above in this analysis as well as the fact that so little is still known regarding the long term results that fracking necessarily entails, it is in the best interest of all involved to seek to bring such a practice to a premature end as a means of salvaging what is left of our tender environment and ecosystems (Porter 1). As such , the reader can quickly infer that the process of fracking likely entails

E-Learning Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

E-Learning - Thesis Example Based on the overall finding of the research, it has been ascertained that continuous advancement in technologies imposed considerable impact over the inhabitants of Saudi Arabia especially in the circumstance of e-learning. The study further revealed that administrative, personal, technical and financial aspects mainly prevent e-learning success in primary public schools within the nation. Based on this fact, in this research study, the above discussed four aspects were considered as independent variables and e-learning success to be the dependant variable. Moreover, it was found that the average numerical value in terms of mean of responses of the teachers in technical barriers was recorded at 4.1996, administrative barriers with 4.2206, financial barriers around 4.2479 and personal barriers with 3.6811. Furthermore, the findings also indicated that administrative barriers have high effect in the succession of e-learning, as reflected by the value of coefficient. Nevertheless, the findings depicted the important fact that in order to attain greater success in the context of e-learning approach in Saudi Arabia, the teacher and the students must remain highly concerned about mitigating the above identified barriers in an effective manner. E-learning refers to the form of learning approach or its related activities, which involves the transmission of information with the use of internet. The e-learning approach has wider applicability from the students’ learning viewpoint, as a form of gaining new learning experiences.

Organization climate and innovation leadership Essay

Organization climate and innovation leadership - Essay Example â€Å"The observable level of culture, and consists of behavior patterns and outward manifestations of culture: perquisites provided to executives, dress codes, level of technology utilized†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Schein, 1992). The shared beliefs and value system of the organizations are reflected in the creative productivity and efficient delivery of the organizational goals and objectives. Leadership with reference to large organization is as important as that of small one for the simple reasons that the leaders within the organizations, not only provide an intangible stability among the employees and facilitate integration with the system, but they have been known to promote collective vision of the organization and provide the necessary impetus to the employees to strive towards it. â€Å"The successful global manager must adapt to the values of other cultures while at the same time maintaining his or her own set of values† ( Elashmawi, Multicultural Management and Negotiation). Workers are the pillars of the organization and good leaders promote better understanding of cross cultural values and help resolve conflicts. It also facilitates in creating congenial work atmosphere that motivates and inspires others to improve their performance and achieve organization’s goals with more enthusiasm, vigor and creativity. Since the workforce or the people are intrinsic part of organization climate, role of department of human resource becomes crucial in the employment of its workforce. In the era of globalization, it becomes important that HR leaders look beyond the criteria of race, nationality and color of their employees. HR leaders need to be aware that the traditional process of labor deployment is undergoing a fast transformation, both in terms of quality and quantity. ‘It is widely acknowledged that over the past decade and a half, radical new forms of production have emerged with the pervasive

Letter of complaint Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Letter of complaint - Article Example However, they did not arrive in time, causing a lot of inconvenience to me. Moreover, the fact that they arrived after a few days in a damaged condition has caused major doubts in my mind regarding your reputation as a leading furniture dealer. I hope you understand the gravity of the situation. I would be grateful if you would take up this matter seriously and resolve it. I had called your service many times to settle the matter amicably, but to no prevail so far. I am forced now to send you an official complaint. If you fail to take action on the basis of this complaint, I am afraid I will have to move to the next step and file a case for damages. I would like to pursue the good relationship with you and order more furniture from you in the future if you would maintain the trust I had in you so far. Otherwise, I will be left with no choice but to take a legal move against you. It is my personal interest to avoid such an incident if it would be possible at any cost. I hope you will understand my good intentions and resolve this issue without causing further damages to me.

Narrative Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Narrative Writing - Essay Example "You will be mine little son," I have told and have put the puppy in a small baby carriage, "you sit here, and I shall bring you a dummy." "It's not interesting game!" the puppy has thought, "We'd better to play hide-and-seek." While I have searched for a dummy, the puppy has fallen out of the carriage and has gone 'to see the sights' of his new home. It has come into one of rooms and has stood motionless. Near the bed he has seen a big black animal and looked at the puppy without one wink."Who are you" the puppy has exclaimed, moving back to be on the safe side, "I am not afraid of you."The black animal was silent. Having grown bolder, the puppy has come closer. "Let's be friends with you," the puppy has cautiously offered. "Mum! Come here!" I have loudly cried, "Fluffy barks at your panther." In the meantime Fluffy has closely come to a mysterious animal. "And why you are silent" the puppy has asked and, having smelt an animal, has touched it with its paw, "How cold you are!" "No! Don't..!" mum has cried, running into the room, but it was too late. The porcelain figure of the panther has swayed, and having hit against the floor has broken in two pieces. "Ah, you silly little thing!" mum has threatened the puppy with the rug. "No I'm not. I am not silly," the puppy have taken an offence, and got under the bed, "I just wished to get acquainted. Forgive me!" it has put out an attractive face, and has there and then got its bitters with a wet rag."You never do it again!" cried mum. "It hurts," whimpered the puppy, on being hidden just in case, "I did not know that it is forbidden. I promise I'll never do it...A real 'miracle' has got out of out of the box. It was a puppy, small and fluffy, as a bear-cub. While I have searched for a dummy, the puppy has fallen out of the carriage and has gone 'to see the sights' of his new home. It has come into one of rooms and has stood motionless. Near the bed he has seen a big black animal and looked at the puppy without one wink. "No I'm not. I am not silly," the puppy have taken an offence, and got under the bed, "I just wished to get acquainted. Forgive me!" it has put out an attractive face, and has there and then got its bitters with a wet rag. In the room, I have put the lead on its neck and have tied it to the back of a chair. Then I have fenced the chair with two pillows from the sofa, and have covered all this strange construction with a blanket. The chair has reeled, pillows got down, and the lead at last was untied. The released puppy has rushed to the kitchen. I was helping mum to prepare the meal. She cut tasty sausage in thin slices, and I laid the table. But I have made the other decision: "If you do not wish to play my games then sit in the corridor," and I have closed the door of the room. This night the puppy has lead on a carpet. It couldn't fall asleep sleep. It was laying and peering into the darkness. "Still I am just a small puppy and do not know much, therefore I make silly things, for which they punish me," the pu

General motors company Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

General motors company - Research Paper Example The company is a South Korea conglomerate company with its headquarters in Seoul. Chung Ju-Yung founded the group in 1998 after the purchase of the second largest car company; Kia Motors, Hyundei purchased 51% of the company thus leading to the growth in the company’s operations and its market share. The acquisition of stake in Kia Motors saw the company’s reestablishment, thus leading to its growth. Hyundei Company deals in production of cars, minivans, trucks, buses and other commercial vehicles. In 2000, the company establishes a fuel task force in Yongin, which acted as the company’s research and development center. In the same year, the Hyundei saw its success after disclosing its first prototype fuel cell vehicle (FCV), which was regarded as the Sante Fe Sports Utility Vehicle just a few months signing an agreement with International Fuel Cells with an effort of supplying fuel cell power plant. The sales made by the company have over the years increased sig nificantly, for example, it made sales of over 3.6 million for its vehicles worldwide. The company is known for its operation of the world largest integrated automobile manufacturing facility, which is based in Ulsan, giving it an ability of annually producing up to 1.6 million units. Hyundai Company has been significant in the provision of employment opportunities; it has employed 75,000 persons worldwide. The company sells its vehicles to 193 countries; this is achieved by use of 6,000 dealerships and showrooms (Chung 22). The major achievement of the company was witnessed in 1986, when he sell its products in the internationally it began to sell cars to the United states, where its product Excel got nomination of being the best product this was because of its cheap prices hence affordability. This was a stepping-stone to the company and from then it began producing model using the available technology. The aggregate production of in 1990 was estimated to be over four million; the company has seen its success in development of gasoline engine and its own transmission. These developments have given the company an opportunity to become technologically independent. In 1998, the company in an effort of establishing the company as an excellent brand, management and leadership was transferred to Chung Mong Koo the son of Chung Ju-Yung. This marked the beginning of heavy investment, invention of various designs, manufacturing and effectiveness in research of the company’s vehicles. Hyundai motors have maintained its position in the region and the world its products are known for the profound performance it has portrayed; it has become the top most valuable brands worldwide (Chung). Situation Analysis The company has been ranked as the fastest growing car manufacturer in South Korea. Currently, the company is involved in marketing of 20 variants of passenger cars in six segments. The continued performance of the company of being the fastest and leading passen ger car manufacturer has lead to the company registering high sales of up to 299, 513 vehicles in 2006, and these amounts to 18.5% increase from over the previous year. The company’s growth rate in the domestic market is an increase of 19.1% in 2006 compared to 17.4% in 2005. The company’s subsidiaries like Hyundai Motor India Limited contain a fully integrated state-of-the-art manufacturing plant has assists in boosting of quality

The argument regarding guns Essay Example for Free

The argument regarding guns Essay The argument regarding guns on campus has been a hot topic ever since the widely covered tragedies at Columbine High School and Virginia Tech University. Since those and other shootings have taken place, some states have decided to make provisions to gun carrying laws on campuses allowing students and faculty to arm themselves. However, not all states have been able to pass changes on such a polarizing issue, and are met by heavy opposition from anti-gun groups. The debate is one with deeply rooted emotions for some, as family members and friends have been directly affected by campus violence. No matter which side of the debate you stand on, one has to admit it is interesting to look at how past events may have been altered with different gun laws, as well as the possible risks and prevention that provisions could cause in the future. On April 16, 2007, a single gunman killed 32 people and injured 17 others before taking his own life on the campus of Virginia Tech. Armed with a backpack full of ammunition, Seung-Hui Cho went from classroom to classroom murdering students and teachers before the campus police finally broke down the barricade to the building he was in, and he turned the gun on himself. Although there is not a way to be sure of how something so random could have been prevented, there is also no doubt in the minds of some that it could have been stopped sooner and more innocent lives saved had there been permission to carrying handguns into the classroom. The response in regards to gun laws following the events in Virginia included â€Å"politicians in at least 25 states have considered new laws or policies designed to protect college students† (Lewis 1) within three months of the attacks. The Virginia Tech Massacre opened old wounds and created new ones, all while sparking nationwide interest and debate on how campuses deal with gun restrictions. In 2008, Arizona Senator Karen S. Johnson, following a shooting on the campus of Northern Illinois University, said that â€Å"the police, [Johnson] said, respond too slowly to such incidents and, beside, who better than the people staring down the barrel to take action? † (Archibold 1) Had there been a student or professor armed during the VTech massacre, there is a chance that the gunman could have been taken down much sooner, saving maybe even dozens of lives and preventing multiple injuries sustained during the attacks. Further supporting from 2008 were the figures on violent crimes on college campuses for the year. â€Å"There were 3,287 rapes, 60 killings, 5,026 assaults and 4,562 robberies across college campuses just in 2008†¦experts tell us campus crime is underreported. † (Burnett 1) Those numbers support the thinking that many self defense advocates use in believing they are at a higher risk of attack knowing that most likely someone walking around a college campus will not be armed. Also following the shooting at VTech, the â€Å"Students for Concealed Carry† was formed. Within 6 months of forming the group had chapters at 60 colleges across the nation, and today now has over 350 chapters in 46 states. In 2010 a Colorado court ruled in favor of the SCC claiming there were inconsistencies between laws enforced by the state and by campuses regarding the right to self defense. (Colorado Court of Appeals 3) Those opposed to the notion of allowing firearms on campus often hang onto the risks that such enactments could possibly result in. Eliminating gun-free campuses nationwide could, in a sense, create very tense and hostile environments in schools and brings up several questions such as, â€Å"Will students feel safer knowing that the student sitting next to them could be ’packing’? † (Siebel 1) The atmosphere created by the chance that there are people armed with guns sitting in close proximity to one another could spoil the integrity of academic debate (Rogers 1) in some if not most college campus settings, much pride is invested into the ability to share differing and sometimes controversial ideas on what could be an emotion stirring topic. [School] is a place where we depend on being able to speak our minds and offer sometimes controversial opinions in a free and open place, she said. The feeling among a percentage of faculty is that this will create a climate of fear and intimidation. (Frosch) The prospect of having guns in the classroom makes many people nervous or fearful for understandable reasons, and would likely lead to less focus on actual instruction and academic participation. This immediate effect could also hold larger ramifications as time goes on with the possibility of affected grades, graduation rates, and possibly even lower enrollment rate from state to state depending on the campus gun laws. However, contrary to this belief shared by anti-gun groups, there does not seem to be any major spike in crime on those campuses that do allow concealed weapons to be carried, â€Å"71 campuses in three states already allow licensed concealed carry on campus†¦done so for years without a single resulting incident. †(Burnett) This leads some to believe that the idea that allowing guns campus would turn them into potential warzones may be greatly exaggerated. Another major criticism gun carrying provisions say that the amount of issues that could arise from it outweigh the prevention possibilities suggested by supporters and would cause more gun related incidents to occur as a result. â€Å"[Critics] argue that the guns would make it easier for people barely out of adolescence, or perhaps emotionally troubled, to respond lethally to typical campus frustrations like poor grades or failed romances. † (Archibold 2) That mode of thinking was supported in 2002 when University of Arizona student Robert Flores Jr. shot and killed 3 of his professors then himself after reportedly being barred from taking an exam by one of his professors. It was determined to be premeditated and likely emotion driven as â€Å"police said [he] specifically targeted the instructors, killing one in her office on the second floor and shooting the others in a fourth-floor classroom as students dove for cover. † (Holguin) Of course in the same respect one could say that had the professors been armed some, if not all, lives could have been saved. One will almost never be able to definitively determine the emotions and motives behind someone going off on a rampage through a university, however it is not farfetched to predict that someone willing to take innocent lives would not be as likely to follow the laws concerning guns whether it was legal to carry or not. Opposition to the pro-gun stance in this issue claim that the chances of catastrophic events such as the VTech Massacre are â€Å"rare† and usually â€Å"either last long enough for armed campus security to respond, or are over before anyone can react. † (USA Today) While the likelihood of an attack occurring is admittedly not very high, it would be interesting to hear a Senator explain those odds to the family of someone killed in one of the many tragedies taken place across the country. Also needed to take into account is the fact that some reports on violent crime â€Å"excludes incidents in which only one person was killed or injured, as well as incidents in which a student started shooting, but no one died. † (CLAJ 291) Therefore leaving some reports skewed to the notion that an attack is not likely. The amounts of varying factors weighed in the decision whether or not to permit guns on campuses, causes a major divide between stances in the issue. Such a polarizing issue as gun control can never come to complete compromise. Those uneasy about the idea of having live firearms in a classroom are unlikely to ever feel completely comfortable, and those who feel their right to self defense is being violated will continue to do so. Whether or not more states decide to adopt changes to gun laws, there will continue to be close attention paid to the measures campuses and states take to ensure the safety of students and staff. We can always speculate what could have been prevented, however much can be taken from tragedies in the past in an effort to deter any future attacks and prevent any more senseless acts of violence.

Global Financial Crisis: Aviation Industry Impact

Global Financial Crisis: Aviation Industry Impact Abstract The basic aim behind to conduct a research analysis on the affects of the global financial crisis with specific to the aviation industry. The research will help to actually analyze the after affects of the financial crisis. As we all know that aviation is one of the most important pillars of the global economy of the world. And also this sector provides millions of jobs globally and contributed heavily in the global GDP. This sector is also the most important and the most efficient mode of transportation. It provides the transportation services all over the world. So as the global financial crisis which was born due to the failure of the major financial institutions caused the drastic impacts on the world economy. And as the aviation is the important part it also got affected heavily by the crisis. Due to which this aviation sector which is one the fastest growing industry has to face negative growth rate. Also the aviation sector has to face huge losses. Some aviation companies was able to bare such huge losses but there is a big number of those aviation companies who do have capacity to bare such huge losses so they go bankrupt after the global financial crisis. CHAPTER 1: Introduction Introduction 1.1 Overview The global financial crisis was triggered in 2007 8 mainly in developed countries like United States of America. After that the crisis entered in the European countries and after a few days the crisis just take the whole of the world under its impact. Almost all of the countries in the world got affected by this financial crisis directly or indirectly. This financial crisis was born due to the failure of the major financial institution of these developed countries. These financial institutions include banks like Lehman Brothers, Bear Steams and etc. These main financial institutions of the United States are the main reason behind the financial crisis. Te global financial crisis caused impacts on almost each and every industry of the world. The key businesses which were showing good positions and were experiencing good growth experienced negative growth because of the financial crisis. Also the consumer wealth faces the billions of dollars loss due to the financial crisis. That is wh y this global Financial Crisis is thought to be the worst financial crisis after the great Depression of twentieth century. The main reason behind the failure of the financial institutions was the artificial bubble of the housing sector of U.S.A. This artificial bubble got height in 2006 and suddenly it burst in year 2007 8 and caused the values of the securities which were tied to the Americas real estate to massive decline. This caused the miss balance in the financial institutions of U.S.A as around 50% of their advances were given on the housing sector. As the value of the real estate falls and so do the financial institutions. And as result of which these financial institutions has bare losses of around $2.3 trillion. This is also the main reason that the most strongest financial institutions go bankrupt after baring such huge losses. As aviation is one of the most important pillars of the global economy of the world. And also this sector provides millions of jobs globally and contributed heavily in the global GDP. This sector is also the most important and the most efficient mode of transportation. It provides the transportation services all over the world. So as the global financial crisis which was born due to the failure of the major financial institutions caused the drastic impacts on the world economy. And as the aviation is the important part it also got affected heavily by the crisis. Due to which this aviation sector which is one the fastest growing industry has to face negative growth rate. . Also the aviation sector has to face huge losses. Some aviation companies was able to bare such huge losses but there is a big number of those aviation companies who do have capacity to bare such huge losses so they go bankrupt after the global financial crisis. 1.2 Background Information The global financial crisis hit the world economy in 2008 and left drastic affects on the world economy, especially the growing industries. The crisis arose first in U.S.A and Europe due to the failures of the main financial institutions. This failure of some financial institutions, lead to the biggest financial crisis after the great depression. The main reason behind the failure of the financial institutions was the artificial bubble of the housing sector of U.S.A. This artificial bubble got height in 2006 and suddenly it burst in year 2007 8 and caused the values of the securities which were tied to the Americas real estate to massive decline. This caused the miss balance in the financial institutions of U.S.A as around 50% of their advances were given on the housing sector. As the value of the real estate falls and so do the financial institutions. And as result of which these financial institutions has bare losses of around $2.3 trillion. This is also the main reason that the m ost strongest financial institutions go bankrupt after baring such huge losses. Impact on Aviation sector As the global economy was disturbed due to this financial crisis of 2008 so Aviation being as one of the main pillars of global economy, it also got affected. As aviation is the main source of transportation throughout the world. The crisis had deeply struck this growing industry. Due to global financial crisis the aviation industry had experienced the negative growth. The impact of the crisis was so huge that a big number of airline companies go bankrupt and those who survived still had to face huge losses. Importance With Respect To The World The global financial crisis is of great importance to the global economy as it has caused drastic impacts on the global economy. Most of the economies of the developed nations are heavily affected by the crisis. It causes the negative impact on almost all of the global businesses. The global financial crisis, brewing for a while, really started to show its effects in the middle of 2007 and into 2008. Around the world stock markets have fallen, large financial institutions have collapsed or been bought out, and governments in even the wealthiest nations have had to come up with rescue packages to bail out their financial system The aviation throughout the world faces the losses in their revenue because of the increasing oil prices and the global financial crisis. Many of the small airlines as well as some big airlines companies go bankrupt. Importance With Respect To Pakistan The Pakistani economy is not as badly affected as that of other countries by the global recession of 2007-2008. The global financial crisis that hit the world very severely has not left many impacts on the economy of Pakistan. Just as the economy has remained safe from getting adverse impacts, the Pakistan International Airline has not been affected that badly either. However, the year 2008 failed to bring any crucial improvements in the overall and financial performance of Pakistan International Airlines. The conundrums, the issues and the problems of the previous years remained and hindered the progress. These similar problems led to further loss and at the end, the company had to bear a higher net loss than the previous year. A short study of the year 2007 shows that during that year, the company went through several unpleasant experiences. It had to face a number of financial, marketing and operational problems. Operating restrictions which were imposed by the European Union duri ng the first few months of the year, led to great disruption in the Pakistan International Airlines schedules and also caused great curtailment in the capacity. During all this, the Pakistan International Airline lost market share. This made the conditions even more difficult for the Pakistan International Airlines. The tremendous increase in the oil prices, which had never been seen before, put adverse effects on the PIAs bottom line. PIA was left with no other choice but to bear the load and burden of paying for the expensive fuel. Moreover, the increase in the salaries if certain categories of personnel and depreciation of the rupee towards the end of the year, both aggravated the situation. 1.4 Research Question There are many reasons that I have chosen this topic of Impact assessment of global financial crisi on the aviation industry. First of all since child the air planes really used to fascinate. It was my dream to become a pilot but I couldnt make to that. But I want to join aviation sector after my studies as I am trying to get admission in Emirates School of Aviation to do MBA in aviation management. That is why I have chosen this specific topic to do research. I think that I have find and learn a lot of new things, facts and figures about aviation industry. So I really want to know about the ups and down in aviation sector. The scope of the research is basically to focus on how the global financial crisis has cause impacts on aviation industry or how GFC has affected the aviation sector specifically. And also to analyze different factors involve in affecting this fastest growing sector of the world. Bay basic Research Question is How the global financial crisis has cause impact on AVIATION INDUSTRY. CHAPTER 2: Literature Review Literature Review The literature review will focus on the issues and the reasons that how the Global financial Crisis has affected the Aviation Industry as a whole, it will mainly be focusing on the different factors involved that affect the aviation. 1 Peter Morrell in his articles Can long haul low cost Airlines be successful talks about low cost airlines. Author says an important task is to determine if LCC business model which is largely short haul can work over long haul sectors or not. This paper examines the advantages of LCCs including the cost and it also appraises how far they can be applied to long haul sectors. The author says that it is seen that the cost advantages might be much lower than approximately 50-60% on short hauls. He also says that the factors such as the implementation and acceptance of some LCC features by network airlines and their anticipated response, the limited potential for market stimulation, the need for dense markets and feed traffic all cast doubt on the prevailing establishment of the business model for long-haul fights. 2 Jacob Denaro in his article Aviation says that due to the worlds energy crisis, there has been as increase in the cost of fuel which has affected U.S. international air carriers adversely. According to the author, the cost of fuel on international air routes increased up to three times than that of domestic jet fuel because it was not under the influence of federal price controls. This aroused the need for subsidies to cover these high fuel bills since Nov,1973. The airlines position was approved by the Chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board. While the issue stayed unsettled, Pan Am asked the Board for the right to arbitrate the consolidation of trans-Atlantic services on the basis that the rapidly increasing fuel prices had plunged it into a financial crisis. Pan Am also asked for the permission to discuss with TWA the possible consolidation of operations, coordinated services and sharing of revenues on trans-Atlantic routes. TWA approved of his position before the Board and filed a petition of its own. The Justice Department stated that the proposition would decrease competition and would prove to be detrimental to the public. The Departments Anti-Trust Division mentioned that pooling would not make the financial impact of the fuel situation any less acute, international air travelers are provided better sevice because of the system of competition which is there, and that the pooling arrangements decrease the incentives to provide both economical and efficient services. These and some other reasons were behind the opposition to the airlines request. 3 Dr. Geraint Harvey Professor Turnbull in their report The Impact of the Financial Crisis on Labor of the Civil Aviation Industry say that civil Aviation is an important and indispensable part of the world economy. It affects activities from every sphere of life and provides employment to a great number of people. This industry provides 31.9 million jobs all around the world. At first, the industry suffered greatly at the hands of the attacks of Sept11,2001 and is now adversely affected because of the global financial crisis. The financial crisis hit the employment in the airline industry as many people have lost their jobs. Managerial authorities believe that it may take years to restore the industry to its normal condition. The study discusses the ways in which the job losses have been taken care of or dealt with. 4 Novie John Prof. Peter Jones in their article The Impact of Economic Downturn in the Flight Catering Industry say that the number of air passengers has greatly decreased which has led to different flights being cancelled. Customers have turned to more economical and cheaper alternatives. So, different companies are compelled to lessen the fares while providing the same standard services. Buying approach has changed. People now try to find cheaper alternatives and solutions. Some people say that all the sectors are equally affected by the present recession. The number of the business class passengers has reduced which has left a great impact on the scheduled airlines. Effects are felt differently of the current recession in the different parts of the world. American economy and the European economy have suffered the most in the recent crisis. Many people believe that the impact of the crisis will only remain for a short time whereas some believe that it may take as long as 5 years. 5 Markus Franke and Florian John in their article What Comes Next After Recession? Airline Industry Scenarios and Potential End Games say that the economic crisis of 2008 has proved to be more severe than that of 2001/2003. Airlines tried their best to minimize their operating costs and operating expenses but still they failed to bypass the effects of the global recession. Also, the process of recovery in profits has been very slow in various airlines. Although a decrease in demand was expected, the crisis caused many other effects that were not expected by any of the experts. During the recession of 2008, the fuel prices rose dramatically which reduced the profits extensively. This recession led to a huge decline in the demand for air travel. Most airlines around the world reacted immediately in 2008 as they reduced their capacity in the short run. And also many of the small airlines have to close down their operations and also go bankrupt as well. 6 Muhammad Usman in his article Global Financial Crisis: Its Impact On Developing Countries And Lessons For Pakistan says that the recession of 2008 was the worst financial crisis ever experienced after the Great Depression of 1930s. This financial crisis arose due to the failure of the major financial institutions of the United States of America including the leading banks like Lehman Brothers. The impact of this financial crisis also caused drastic impacts on the European economy resulting in the downward trends in the stock exchange and also a significant impact on the value of different subprime mortgages at the same time. The recent financial crisis also caused negative impacts on the world economy as a whole. Almost each and every aspect of the global economy got affected by the financial crisis. Economy of Pakistan being part of the global economy also got affected by the global financial crisis. But as Pakistani economy is already facing so many problems do get that much affect ed by the financial crisis. 7 A Google Book Aviation Industry Performance says that the aviation industry had to face many challenges during the year 2008. Many passengers even changed their preferences and demands which worsened the condition. Operating costs also increased due to increase in the fuel prices. Both , the increase in oil prices and the recession led to service terminations and many bankruptcies. After the recession of 2008, different companies took steps to cope with the situation. They achieved the target of improving the economic conditions by cutting costs and increasing the fares. The number of domestic scheduled flights was reduced. The airlines that used small air crafts were forced to eradicate them or minimize their number. Soon, reduction in the number of scheduled flights was seen and the companies reduced the fares to increase the demand until new capacity cuts were introduced. (Elizabeth Tinoco director ILO Sectoral Activities Department) Aviation industry supports 31.9 million jobs globally. Markus Frank and Florian John (2010). Before financial crisis Aviation industry had an annual growth rate of 7 % to 9%. Markus Frank and Florian John (2010). In Oil Crisis of 1979-80 and Asian Financial Crisis the Aviation industry grew at least 2% annually. Markus Frank and Florian John (2010). Only three times the Aviation industry have seen the negative growth. Neil Dias Karunaratne (2009) Global financial Crisis deeply effect the Aviation Industry. Markus Frank and Florian John (2010). Drop of 6.1%of overall air traffic was recorded in 2009 CHAPTER 3: Methodology Methodology The topic of my research is Impact Assessment Of Global Financial Crisis On Aviation Industry. The methodology will tell us as to what models to apply and on the basis of that results will be formulated and interpreted and the most affecting variable will be verified. Research Type: The type of research which I will be conducting is quantitative in nature. As the data of my research is mainly secondary and mostly its in numbers so qualitative does not suite my research topic. As there are lots of numeric data involved in my research so I have to run different statistical models which are only possible in quantitative type of research. Data Type and Research Period: Data used in my research will be secondary in nature. The data could in form of time series data gathered from various databases. The reference period of data used in my research is of five years ranging from 2005 to 2009. Sources of Data: Data for my research will be most likely taken from several databases and related websites. The major sources of data collection are the reports, working papers and actual facts of Air Carrier Traffic Statistics, IATA, WDI, ILO, JSTOR etc. data of oil prices will be taken from OPEC web site. Data on tourism will be taken from WDI and data on GDP will also be taken from WDI and different economic surveys. Data on unemployment, less travel demand and couriers will also be gathered. Theoretical Framework Operational Definitions: Aviation: means science and technology of flight through air i.e. airlines 9/11: attack on the world trade centre. GFC: Global Financial Crisis. SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. GDP: Gross Domestic Product. Financial Markets: is a mechanism that allows people to buy and sell (trade) financial securities (stocks and bonds), commodities (precious metals) and other fungible items of value at low transaction cost. Asian financial crisis: The Asian Financial Crisis was a period of financial crisis that gripped much of Asia beginning in July 1997, and raised fears of a worldwide economic meltdown due to financial contagion. RPK: Revenue Passenger kilometer (RPK) is a measure of a passenger traffic for an airline flight, bus, or train calculated by multiplying the total number of revenue-paying passengers aboard the vehicle by the distance traveled measured in miles Techniques: The technique to be carried out for research will be Regression analysis. Regression analysis is a statistical technique which is used to determine the relationships between variables. It involves modeling and analyzing variables relationships between one dependent variable and several independent variables. Data Analysis: The statistical softwares to be employed for research purpose are Minitab, Statgraphics and EViews. Regression for each variable will be run. The research will also use graphs and tables for illustration. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS H0: Global Financial Crisis has not cause significant impacts on Aviation Industry. HA: Global Financial Crisis cause significant impacts on Aviation Industry. H0: Crude Oil Prices has not significant effect on Aviation Industry. HA: Crude Oil Prices have significant effect on Aviation Industry. H0: GDP growth has not significant effect on Aviation Industry. HA: GDP growth has any significant effect on Aviation Industry. H0: Inflation rate has not significant effect on Aviation Industry. HA: Inflation rate have any significant effect on Aviation Industry. H0: Unemployment rate has not significant effect on Aviation Industry. HA: Unemployment rate have any significant effect on Aviation Industry. CHAPTER 4: Results and Analysis Results and Analysis RESULTS Multiple Regression Analysis Dependent variable: Registered Carrier Departures Standard T Parameter Estimate Error Statistic P-Value CONSTANT 1.17957E7 1.17689E6 10.0227 0.0000 Crude Oil Prices 36212.5 6652.45 5.44348 0.0001 GDP Growth % -50451.8 93127.7 -0.541749 0.5959 Inflation annual % -541064.0 104745.0 -5.16555 0.0001 Unemployment % -547932.0 133271.0 -4.11141 0.0009 - Analysis of Variance Source Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F-Ratio P-Value Model 2.10578E13 4 5.26444E12 22.98 0.000 Residual 3.4357E12 15 2.29047E11 Total (Corr.) 2.44935E13 19 R-squared = 85.973 percent R-squared (adjusted for d.f.) = 82.2325 percent Standard Error of Est. = 478588.0 Mean absolute error = 323221.0 Durbin-Watson statistic = 1.67531 The StatAdvisor The output shows the results of fitting a multiple linear regression model to describe the relationship between Registered Carrier Departures and 4 independent variables. The equation of the fitted model is Registered Carrier Departures = 1.17957E7 50451.8*GDP Growth % -541064.0*Inflation 36212.5*Oil Prices 547932.0*Unemployment % Since the P-value in the ANOVA table is less than 0.01, there is a statistically significant relationship between the variables at the 99% confidence level. The R-Squared statistic indicates that the model as fitted explains 85.973% of the variability in Registered Carrier Departures. The adjusted R-squared statistic, which is more suitable for comparing models with different numbers of independent variables, is 82.2325%. The standard error of the estimate shows the standard deviation of the residuals to be 478588.0. This value can be used to construct prediction limits for new observations by selecting the Reports option from the text menu. The mean absolute error (MAE) of 323221.0 is the average value of the residuals. The Durbin-Watson (DW) statistic tests the residuals to determine if there is any significant correlation based on the order in which they occur in your data file. Since the DW value is greater than 1.4, there is probably not any serious autocorrelation in the residuals. In determining whether the model can be simplified, notice that the highest P-value on the independent variables is 0.5959, belonging to unemployment. Since the P-value is greater or equal to 0.10, that term is not statistically significant at the 90% or higher confidence level. Consequently, you should consider removing GDP Growth % from the model. Regression Analysis Crude Oil Prices: H0: ÃŽÂ ² à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0 HA: ÃŽÂ ² à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0 ÃŽÂ ± =0.01, Çâ‚ ¬test statÇâ‚ ¬ > tc tc = 2.539 t-stat=5.4438 >2.539 Sign of t-stat is not the same as expected. We do not reject Ho as the coefficient of the crude oil prices is not coming out to be significant at 1% level of significance. GDP Growth %: H0: ÃŽÂ ² à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0 HA: ÃŽÂ ² à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0 ÃŽÂ ± =0.01 tc = 2.539 Çâ‚ ¬test statÇâ‚ ¬ Çâ‚ ¬o.541749Çâ‚ ¬ Sign of GDP Growth % is not the same as expected. We do not reject H0, as the GDP Growth is not coming out to be significant at 1% level of significance. Inflation % H0: ÃŽÂ ² à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0 HA: ÃŽÂ ² à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0 ÃŽÂ ± =0.01 tc = 2.539 Çâ‚ ¬test statÇâ‚ ¬ > tc Çâ‚ ¬-5.16555Çâ‚ ¬ > 2.539 Sign of tstat is the same as the expected sign of HA We reject H0, as annual inflation is coming out to be significant at 1 % level of signifance. Unemployment H0: ÃŽÂ ² à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0 HA: ÃŽÂ ² à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0 ÃŽÂ ± =0.01 tc = 2.539 Çâ‚ ¬test statÇâ‚ ¬ > tc Çâ‚ ¬-4.11141Çâ‚ ¬ > 2.539 Sign of tstat is the same as the expected sign of HA We reject H0 as unemployment rate % is coming out to be significant at 1 % level. Interpretation of the Variables: The no of registered carrier departure will be equal to 11795000, if all other independent variables are equal to zero. The Coefficient of the crude oil prices is coming to be positive, which is not true. This could be because of some unobserved factors that are causing positive biasness in crude oil prices variable. Crude Oil If crude oil prices will increase by $1 then the number registered carrier departures will increase by 36212.5, keeping all other variables constant. GDP growth % If GDP growth will go up by 1%, the no. of registered carrier departure will decrease by 504.518 departures, keeping all other variables constant. Inflation % If the inflation in the US economy will increase by 1%, then the number of registered carrier departures will decrease by 5410.64 number of flights, keeping all other variables constant. Unemployment rate % If the unemployment rate in the us economy will increase by 1 % the registered carrier will decrease by 5479.32 number of flights, keeping all other variables constant. R square The simpler commonly used measure of fit is the coefficient of determination, R2. The coefficient of determination is explained sum of squares to the total sum of squares. R2= The higher the R2, the closer the closer the estimated regression equation fits the sample data. Measures of this type are called goodness of fit measures. The goodness of fit explains the variation of Y around Ã…Â ¶. R-squared = 85.973 percent R-squared (adjusted for d.f.) = 82.2325 percent The R-squares of this regression is 85.973 percent which is really good. Conclusion The global financial crisis was triggered in 2007 8 mainly in developed countries like United States of America. After that the crisis entered in the European countries and after a few days the crisis just take the whole of the world under its impact. Almost all of the countries in the world got affected by this financial crisis directly or indirectly. This financial crisis was born due to the failure of the major financial institution of these developed countries. These financial institutions include banks like Lehman Brothers, Bear Steams and etc. These main financial institutions of the United States are the main reason behind the financial crisis. Te global financial crisis caused impacts on almost each and every industry of the world. The key businesses which were showing good positions and were experiencing good growth experienced negative growth because of the financial crisis. Also the consumer wealth faces the billions of dollars loss due to the financial crisis. That is wh y this global Financial Crisis is thought to be the worst financial crisis after the great Depression of twentieth century. As aviation is one of the most important pillars of the global economy of the world. And also this sector provides millions of jobs globally and contributed heavily in the global GDP. This sector is also the most important and the most efficient mode of transportation. It provides the transportation services all over the world. So as the global financial crisis which was born due to the failure of the major financial institutions caused the drastic impacts on the world economy. And as the aviation is the important part it also got affected heavily by the crisis. Due to which this aviation sector which is one the fastest growing industry has to face negative growth rate. . Also the aviation sector has to face huge losses. Some aviation companies was able to bare such huge losses but there is a big number of those aviation companies who do have capacity to bare such huge losses so they go bankrupt after the global financial crisis. Ethical Issue: Refusal of Treatment Ethical Issue: Refusal of Treatment Introduction The broad scope of nursing practice demands familiarity with the all of the ethical, professional and legal issues relating to clinical practice. The Nursing and Midwifery Council standards of conduct, performance and ethics require that nurses provide high standards of practice and have a duty of care to all patients (NMC 2007). This paper discusses the case of Alastair and explores the ethical, professional and legal issues which are of relevance to clinical nursing practice in this particular case. Ethical, professional and legal issues Autonomy is defined as the right to determine what happens to one’s own body. As stated by Mill (1982): â€Å"the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others to do so would be wise, or even right†. Every individual has a right to self-determination and patient autonomy forms part of that right and is protected by law (Hyland 2002). The principle of respect for autonomy forms a key component of nursing ethics (van Thiel and van Delden 2001). The nurse has an obligation to promote autonomy in the patient and work to empower the patient to make autonomous decisions where possible (Hewitt 2002). The Human Rights Act (1988) enables individuals to take action against a health authority that has failed to uphold their right to respect (OPSI 1998). Proot et al. (2002) described a study conducted in 27 health care providers from three different nursing homes, who were interviewed about autonomy issues relating to stroke patients in rehabilitation and nurses’ perceptions of patient autonomy. Study findings showed that self determination, independence and self care were all associated with the process of patients regaining their autonomy. In Alastair’s case, he was no longer independent and able to care for himself following his stroke, and had to rely on others for help with everyday activities. The nurse must therefore decide whether Alastair is capable of making a fully autonomous decision. If they believe this is not the case, they may be able to work with other members of the multidisciplinary care team to increase Alistair’s autonomy and empower him to make the best choices regarding his care. Advocacy forms an integral part of a nurse’s role and is a mandatory activity within the ethical code of all professional nurses. Advocacy involves a professional responsibility to support the patient’s needs and wishes through active involvement in a process of analysis, counselling, responding, shielding and whistle blowing (Hyland 2002; Vaartio et al. 2006). There is a therefore a relationship between nurse advocacy and patient autonomy (Hyland 2002). If nurses are to demonstrate paternalism and/or empower patients to make decisions regarding their care, they themselves must be empowered, particularly as nurses have increasingly greater accountability for their actions (Hewitt 2002; Christensen and Hewitt-Taylor 2006). The United Kingdom Central Council for Nursing Midwifery and Health Visiting states that â€Å"If the nurse does not feel that sufficient information has been given in terms readily understandable to the patient so as to enable him to make a truly informed decision, it is for her to state this opinion and seek to have the situation remedied † (UKCC 1989). It is also suggested that advocacy may place the nurse in situations of conflict, since there may be differences between nurse’s and doctor’s perceptions of autonomy at times (Mallik 2007). Supporting Alastair’s wishes and his decisions regarding his care requires the nurse to possess knowledge of his condition and the likely consequence s of discontinuing treatment. Through this empowerment, the nurse is ideally placed to educate and support Alistair in their role as advocate. Beneficence (doing good) is central to nursing philosophy, but achieving a balance between this and non-maleficence (avoiding harm) can present a challenge for nurses and the two principles may be viewed as separate ends of one continuum (Bartter 2001). In Alistair’s case, the nurse must consider the benefits and risks associated with treatment and with discontinuing treatment, and explain these to Alistair, thereby allowing him to make informed decisions. In situations where the patient is unable to make an autonomous decision, the nurse has a duty of beneficence to act in the patient’s best interests, while also respecting the patient as an individual. This would apply if Alistair was deemed not to be of sound mind and decisions regarding his treatment had to made by his care team. Veracity, or truth telling, is closely associated with informed decision making and is an important component of a trusting nurse-patient relationship. Veracity may present a dilemma for the nurse since there are times when telling the truth may cause harm to an individual (non-maleficence). Conversely there may be situations where telling a lie may actually do good (beneficence), although this goes against the principle of veracity (Ellis and Hartley 2003). The nurse has a duty to tell Alistair the truth about his condition and treatment to ensure that he is fully informed when making decisions regarding whether or not to continue with treatment/rehabilitation. Justice as fairness in nursing refers to the need for nurses to treat people equally, although this does not necessarily mean treating them in the same way (Staunton and Chiarella 2005). Nurses must acknowledge cultural, social and educational diversity and adopt appropriate strategies to achieve equal treatment for all patients. Clinical governance demands the provision of high-quality, patient-centred care and Alistair’s individual situation and specific health needs must be taken into account by the nurse during his care. All nurses, including those practicing within the community, have a duty to maintain confidentiality, although it should be acknowledged that there may be certain situations where confidentiality may be breached (Dimond 2000). Confidentiality is regarded as a critical component of good nursing care and reflects the professional responsibility of the nurse to respect a patient’s rights. The Data Protection Act 1998 also governs the protection of patients’ information (OPSI 1998). The nurse should therefore maintain Alistair’s confidentiality unless there is good reason not to do so. Consent to treatment is central to the nurse-patient relationship and it is the patient’s decision alone as to whether they accept or reject treatment. As nurses broaden their scope of practice, issues surrounding patient consent to treatment are becoming increasingly important (Anon 1997). It is a principle of UK law that a competent adult who has passes the Re C test may refuse treatment even if his life depends on it (Dimond 2004). The Court of Appeal has stated that provided the patient has the necessary mental capacity (assessed in relation to the decision that has to me made), they can refuse to give consent with or without a reason for doing so. In UK law, the court protects the right of the individual in this regard. This was illustrated in a case where the court ruled that â€Å"It is established that the principle of self-determination requires that respect must be given to the wishes of the patient, so that, if an adult patient of sound mind refuses, however unreasonably, to consent to treatment or care by which his life would or might be prolonged, the doctors responsible for his care must give effect to his wishes, eventhough they do not consider it to be in his best interests to do so† (Airedale NHS Trust v Bland [1993] AC 789). More recently was a case in which a woman paralysed from the neck down refused treatment in order to end her life. The woman was assessed to be of sound mind. The Court of Appeal ruling allowed a ventilator keeping the woman alive to be switched off, re-enforcing the duty of the healthcare professional to respect the wishes of a competed patient (Re B v NHS Trust [2002]). [Client: this case is similar to that of Alistair in that the patient was of sound mind and refused treatment. I was unable to find any cases relating to refusal of medical treatment in older adults of sound mind following stroke] In the case of Alistair, he initially was receiving medical treatment but took a subsequent decision to refuse further treatment. An assessment should be made to determine whether Alistair is of sound mind and is capable of making informed decisions regarding his care. If he is indeed competent, the nurse should work to promote Alistair’s autonomy through education and other methods, taking into account the ethical principles of beneficence and non-maleficence, veracity and justice, to ensure that he possesses adequate knowledge to make the best decisions on his care. At present, Alistair’s health is reasonably good; however, his decision not to continue with treatment and rehabilitation is likely to have a negative impact on his health and well-being in the longer term. Both of the case laws described above are applicable to the case of Alistair, since, should this case reach the Court of Appeal and he is assessed as competent, the judge is likely to rule that Alistair ’s wishes must be respected and his can continue to refuse treatment (based on the patient information provided in the scenario alone). Conclusions This paper has discussed the ethical, professional and legal issues relating to a specific patient case. It can be seen that these issues are inextricably linked and should all be taken into account in the provision of high-quality, patient-centred nursing care. In this case, self-determination, respecting the patient’s right to autonomy, and nurse advocacy are of particular importance, given that the patient is competent and capable of making informed decisions regarding his care. Other ethical principles including beneficence, non-maleficence, veracity and justice also play a key role in nurses’ ethical decision-making. References Anon 1997, ‘The legal and ethical implication of consent to nursing procedure’, British Journal of Nursing, vol. 6., no. 15, pp. 885–8. Airedale NHS Trust v Bland [1993] AC 789. Retrieved 30th November 2008 from:  http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1992/5.html Bartter, K. 2001, Ethical issues in advanced nursing practice, Butterworth – Heinemann, Oxford. Christensen, M. Hewitt-Taylor, J. 2006, ‘Empowerment in nursing: paternalism or maternalism?’, British Journal of Nursing, vol. 15, no. 13, pp. 695–9. Dimond, B. 2000, ‘Legal issues arising in the community nursing 9: confidentiality’, British Journal of Community Nursing, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 401–3. Dimond, B. 2004, Legal aspects of nursing, Longman, UK. Ellis, J. R. Hartley C. L. 2003, Nursing in today’s world: challenges, issues and trends, Lippincott, New York. Hewitt, J. 2002, ‘A critical review of the arguments debating the role of the nurse advocate’, Journal of Advanced Nursing, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 439–45. Hyland, D. 2002, ‘An exploration of the relationship between patient autonomy and patient advocacy: implications for nursing practice’, Nursing Ethics, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 472–82. Mill, J. S. 1982, On Liberty, Penguin, Harmondsworth, Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), The Code – standards of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses and midwives. Retrieved 30th November 2008 from:  http://www.nmc-uk.org/aFrameDisplay.aspx?DocumentID=3954 Mallik, M. 2007, ‘Advocacy in nursing – perceptions of practicing nurses’, Journal of Clinical Nursing, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 303–13. Proot, I. M., Abu-Saad, H. H., van Oorsouw, G. G., Stevens, J. J. 2002, ‘Autonomy in stroke rehabilitation: the perceptions of care providers in nursing homes’, Nursing Ethics, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 36–50. Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI) 1998, Human Rights Act 1988. Retrieved 30th November 2008 from:  http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1998/ukpga_19980042_en_1 Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI) 1998. Data Protection Act 1998. Retrieved 30th November 2008 from:  1998  http://www.opsi.gov.uk/Acts/Acts1998/ukpga_19980029_en_1 Re B v NHS Trust 2002. Retrieved 30th November 2008 from:  http://www.ipsofactoj.com/international/2003/Part05/int2003(5)-005.htm Staunton, P. Chiarella, M. 2005, Nursing and the law, Elsevier Publishers, USA. Vaartio, H., Leino-Kilpi, H., Salantera, S., Suominen, T. 2006, ‘Nursing advocacy: how is it defined by patients and nurses, what does it involve and how is it experienced?’, Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 181–92. van Thiel, G. J. van Delden, J. J. 2001, ‘The principle of respect for autonomy in the case of nursing home residents’, Nursing Ethics, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 419–31. UKCC 1989, Exercising accountability – a framework to assist nurses, midwives and health visitors to consider ethical aspects of professional practice. Retrieved 30th November from:  http://www.bristol-inquiry.org.uk/final_report/annex_a/chapter_17_7.htm#1029984

Exercise Tests for Aerobic Capacity | Evaluation

Exercise Tests for Aerobic Capacity | Evaluation Evaluation of Exercise Tests Used to Examine Aerobic Capacity Aerobic exercise was developed by Dr. Kenneth Cooper in 1969, to study why some individuals with superior muscular strength, scored poorly in long distance running, cycling or swimming regimes (Cooper, 1969). Dr. Cooper’s research involved using a bicycle ergometer to measure sustained human performance, in terms of an individual’s ability to utilize oxygen (Cooper, 1969). The data Dr. Cooper collected for his research is the foundation for the development of all modern aerobic tests and programs (Cooper, 1969). Aerobic exercise describes a physical activity performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time; ultimately increasing heart rate (Donatelle, 1969). This includes exercises like long distance jogging but not sprinting (Donatelle, 1969). In aerobic exercise, glycogen is decomposed to produce glucose; however, when glucose levels are minimal, fat is broken down (Donatelle, 1969). The ability an individual’s respiratory and cardiovascul ar systems can meet the oxygen demands of exercising muscles is called aerobic capacity (NYCFD, 2006). It is the maximum volume of oxygen muscles will intake during exercise (Donatelle, 1969). High aerobic capacity translates to better performance (Donatelle, 1969), not only because oxygen is efficiently delivered to and used by muscles, but also because recovery from extreme efforts by the muscles is faster (NYCFD, 2006). To boost aerobic capacity, heart rate needs to be worked up to 70% to 85% of its maximum; this is known as the heart’s â€Å"Target Heart Rate† or â€Å"Training Sensitive Zone† (NYCFD, 2006). This can be done by participating in aerobic training that recruits large muscle groups, such as those in the legs (NYCFD, 2006). As exercise intensity increases, oxygen consumption (VO2) linearly relates to workload, but only to a certain point, where VO2 plateaus, even as exercise intensity rises (McArdle et al, 2001). This plateau value, known as the maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max), is synonymous with aerobic power (Peterson, 2004), which is defined as the extent at which aerobic capacity, the peak aerobic energy strength, is exploited (Sports Resource Group, 2003). However, VO2 max is not the only predictor of aerobic capacity (Peterson, 2004); expressed as a fraction of VO2 max (% VO2 max ) (Peterson, 2004), the physiological value (LT), typically known as lactate threshold or anaerobic threshold (Peterson, 2004), also provides valuable information. LT defines situations when glycogen decomposition does not meet the required energy demands of the exercising muscles (Donatelle, 2005), and measures the degree of muscular and metabolic stress during exercise (Peterson, 2004). It is the point above restin g level, when light elevating levels of exercise causes glycogenolysis increases (Peterson, 2004), and lactate begins to accumulate in active muscles and blood (Farrell et al, 1993). Although lactic acid build up is removed gradually by slow oxidative muscle fibers, lactic acid often builds up in muscles before LT is reached (Peak Performance, 2006). Since there is no definitive start point in lactic acid build up, a set lactate accumulation value of 4 mmol/L of lactic acid in the blood is usually used as the point of onset of blood lactic acid (OBLA) (Peterson, 2004). LT is considered to be a more accurate predictor of aerobic capacity than VO2 max, however, it pertains only to the local muscles’ training state (Peterson, 2004). The LT phenomenon helps to explain why individuals with similar VO2 max can differ in endurance performance times (Peterson, 2004); those with a higher LT exhibit better ability to exercise because they use a larger fraction of their aerobic capacity (85-90% VO2 max) (Peterson, 2004). Factors leading to these results include examining whether subjects have undergone previous strength and endurance training in the muscles being analyzed and the percentage of Type 1 muscle fibers in the targeted muscles (Peterson, 2004). Exercise tests that informatively examine aerobic capacity, should help describe the overall changes in the cardiovascular system, as well as the local changes in the muscles, active in exercise (Peterson, 2004). Theses changes, collectively known as adaptations (Peterson, 2004), include increase in plasma volume, blood flow redirection to active muscles, heart size enlargement, heart rate reduction (HR), stroke volume elevation (SV), increase in cardiac output (Q), total muscle blood flow increase during maximal exercise and blood pressure reduction (Peterson, 2004). When capillary density is increased because of aerobic exercise, muscles take in more oxygen (Peterson, 2004). The local adaptations of the muscles that should be regarded as a part of examining aerobic capacity include: increase in the number and size of mitochondria, more carbohydrate oxidation because of increased oxidative enzyme activity, improved fat metabolism, the amount of muscle and type of muscle fiber eviden t during the exercise (Peterson, 2004). Today, common forms of aerobic capacity testing are the treadmill (TM), walk tests and cycle ergometer (CE) tests (Peterson, 2004). These methods are effective because they require the use of large muscle groups and are also cheap and straightforward enough for subjects to handle (Peterson, 2004). In all incidences, the clinical exercise testing protocols would involve initial warm-up; gradual increasing loads of uninterrupted exercise, with adequate duration per level; and finally a recovery period (Fletcher et al, 1995). Endurance running can be defined as maintainable velocity over a given distance (Peterson, 2004). Measuring aerobic capacity using treadmill facilitated tests require subjects to walk at a light pace, then gradually pickup the workload at set time intervals (Donatelle, 1969). The equipment used is an accurately calibrated, standard treadmill with variable speed and grade capability (Fletcher et al, 1995). Subjects should refrain from tightly grasping handrails on the treadmill during the test, as this results in decrease in VO2 and increase in muscle exertion and exercise time (Fletcher et al, 1995). The duration of an average protocol is 6 to 12 minutes (Fletcher et al, 1995), but a number of different protocols exist, varying in the increments of time or amount of increase in workload (Fletcher et al, 1995). The ideal protocol however, should be tailored to the type of subject being tested (Fletcher et al, 1995). The values usually measured in TM tests, VO2 and peak cardiac power output (CPOmax) , (Fletcher et al, 1995), give an idea about an individual’s aerobic capacity, and are used as data for many different studies. For example, studies have used TM tests to determine aerobic capacity of subjects (Williams et al, 2001 and Cooke et al, 1998). Their data gave evidence that CPOmax during exercise, was significantly related to aerobic capacity and also correlated to exercise duration (Williams et al, 2001 and Cooke et al, 1998). CPOmax was found to be an independent mortality predictor (Williams et al, 2001), and using TM cardiopulmonary exercise testing is beneficial because it is non-invasive, therefore less stressful for patients to participate (Williams et al, 2001 and Cooke et al, 1998). This finding was consistent in a population of normal subjects and individuals with heart disease (Cooke et al, 1998), and ultimately gave a more definitive idea about the extent of cardiac impai rment of patients with heart failure (Williams et al, 2001 and Cooke et al, 1998). A lower impact alteration of the TM test is the six minute walk test (6MWT), which is cheaper and simpler to conduct (American Thoracic Society, 2002). This test is usually used on patients with health problems, and measures the distance of hard, flat surface subjects can briskly over in 6 minutes (American Thoracic Society, 2002). The test is useful for evaluating the body’s overall and local adaptation responses involved in exercise (American Thoracic Society, 2002). This includes pulmonary and cardiovascular systems, systemic circulation, peripheral circulation, blood, neuromuscular units, and muscle metabolism (American Thoracic Society, 2002). However, since the 6MWT evaluates the submaximal level of functional capacity (American Thoracic Society, 2002), information generated is not specific about the causes of limitation (Johnson, 2004). Measuring performance at submaximal levels of exertion, the 6MWD gives a good indication of the level of functional exercise in daily physical activities (American Thoracic Society, 2002). However, for patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), the test generates a similar stress as a maximal test (Johnson, 2004). In studies conducted using a population of patients with cardiac and or respiratory problems (Solway et al, 2001), the 6MWT was established to be the easiest to administer, most tolerated by patients and most reflective of daily activities, out of 2-min walk tests (2MWT), 12-min walk tests (12MWT), self-paced walk tests (SPWT), and shuttle walk tests (SWT) (Solway et al, 2001). In order to study the effects aerobic and strength training have on improving aerobic endurance and muscle strength in female cardiac transplant recipients (Haykowsky et al, 2005), the 6MWT was administered to measure cardiac transplant patients’ aerobic endurance befor e and after placing them in aerobic training programs (Haykowsky et al, 2005). However, firm conclusions on the usefulness of the test in clinical practice, are still lacking (Opasich et al, 2001). In a study to investigate the correlation between walk test performance, cardiac function and exercise capacity (Opasich et al, 2001), it was found that for moderate to severe chronic heart failure patients, the 6-min walk test is not related to cardiac function and only moderately related to exercise capacity (Opasich et al, 2001). Therefore, the paper deemed the test to have only limited usefulness as a decisional indicator in clinical practice (Opasich et al, 2001). Some disadvantages of the 6MWT is that being a time controlled test, the only way a subject can show improved aerobic capacity in subsequent testing, is by walking faster (Johnson, 2004). However, for some COPD patients, walking faster is difficult due to factors such as stride length (Johnson, 2004); a TM test on the other hand can accommodate for a steeper grade, hence allowing patients to show improvements in their overall condition (Johnson et al, 2002). TM testing can be deemed better than 6MWT as it is more versatile; it can be used with or without advanced monitoring such as continuous electrocardiography or expired gas analysis (Johnson, 2004). However, TM tests are more expensive and require more expertise (Johnson, 2004). Although 6MWT is a good test to repeat for the purposes of documenting decline in exercise tolerance (Johnson, 2004), TM tests are better at documenting improvements in function because they test at constant workload, and is therefore more sensitive (Johns on, 2004). For individuals untrained in cycling, VO2 max is higher when tested on TM compared to CE (Peterson, 2004), while trained cyclists generated only slightly higher VO2 max values when tested via CE compared to TM (Peterson, 2004). VO2 values from TM tests are generally higher than those attained from CE protocols (McArdle et al, 2001). The cause is because most individuals are more comfortable walking or running, as oppose to cycling (McArdle et al, 2001). It could also be because CE testing causes discomfort and fatigue of the quadriceps muscles (Fletcher et al, 1995). Leg fatigue of an inexperienced cyclist causes subjects to stop before reaching a true VO2max (Fletcher et al, 1995), making the value 10% to 15% lower in CE than TM tests (Fletcher et al, 1995). In cycling terms, endurance performance is the power output maintained for a given time (Peterson, 2004). CE tests require an initial power output of about 10 or 25W, followed by a 25W increase in 2 to 3 minute increments (Fletcher et al, 1995). Arm ergometry would require a similar approach, but with a smaller initial power output and lower incremental increases; usually every 2 minutes (Franklin, 1985 and Balady et al, 1985). Studies have also shown that it is possible to measure actual aerobic capacity in a single session by continuously increasing the load (Birkhorst Leeuwen, 1963). The equipment used for CE tests can either be mechanical or electrically braked cycles with adjustable variable force on the pedals (Fletcher et al, 1995). The highest values of VO2 and heart rate can usually be obtained with pedaling speeds of 50 to 80 rpm (Fletcher et al, 1995). The cycles are calibrated in kilopounds (kp) or watts, where 1 W corresponds to about 6 kilopound-meters per minute (kpm/min) (Fletcher et al, 1995). This can be converted to oxygen uptake in milliliters per minute for aerobic capacity measurement purposes (Fletcher et al, 1995). A cycle ergometer is usually less expensive, more space efficient and less noisy than a treadmill (Fletcher et al, 1995). Other advantages of CE tests are that upper body movement of subjects’ are reduced, which facilitates measurements in blood pressure and making ECG recordings (Fletcher et al, 1995). CE tests also give precise quantization of external work, ultimately facilitating the calculation of certain parameters for aerobic capacity examination (Johnson, 2004). Like the TM test, it is important that subjects refrain from exercising their arms in a resistive fashion, because this results in attaining inaccurate data for aerobic capacity (Fletcher et al, 1995). In studies of patients with COPD, in addition to being inconsistent with patients’ normal activities, CE tests are less commonly used because they produced significant respiratory differences when compared with walking tests (Johnson, 2004). However, CE tests have been useful for identifying that the pathology of Gulf War veterans (GV) with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), do not show a decreased aerobic capacity like most normal CFS patients (Nagelkirk et al, 2003). Overall, although TM, 6MWT and CE tests are all used to examine aerobic capacity, there are fundamental differences between the three tests (Peterson, 2004); these include differences in the muscle group exerted, pattern of muscle use, contraction speed and time of muscles and the metabolic processes (Peterson, 2004). In summary, TM and walking tests are more likely to identify oxygen desaturation (Turner et al, 2004). 6MWT is the easiest test to perform (Turner et al, 2004), and is adequate for most purposes (Johnson, 2004). However, depending on how and what the data from the aerobic capacity testing is used for, an important factor for choosing the most suitable test is the population of subjects being observed. References American Thoracic Society 2002, ‘ATS Statement: Guidelines for the Six-Minute Walk Test’, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol. 166, pp. 111-117, viewed 24 23 April 2006, http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/166/1/111.pdf> Balady G.J., Weiner D.A., McCabe C.H., Ryan T.J. 1985, Value of Arm Exercise Testing in Detecting Coronary Artery Disease, Am. J. Cardiol., vol. 55, pp. 37-39. 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Curtin University of Technology; School of Physiotherapy, viewed 22 April 2006, http://physiotherapy.curtin.edu.au/resources/educational-resources/exphys/00/specificity.cfm> Solway S., Brooks D., Lacasse Y., and Thomas S. 2001, ‘A Qualitative Systematic Overview of the Measurement Properties of Functional Walk Tests Used in the Cardiorespiratory Domain’. Chest , vol. 119, pp. 256-270, viewed 22 April 2006, http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/reprint/119/1/256.pdf> Sports Resource Group Inc 2003, Lactate Testing for Triathlon Coaches A Framework for Testing, Lactate.com, viewed 23 April 2006, http://www.lactate.com/triathlon/trtest.htm> Turner S.E., Eastwood P.R., Cecins N.M., Hillman D.R., Jenkins S.C. 2004, Physiologic Responses to Incremental and Self-Paced Exercise in COPD: A comparison of Three Tests, Chest, vol. 126, no.3, pp. 766-73. 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